1517 lines
No EOL
87 KiB
HTML
1517 lines
No EOL
87 KiB
HTML
<!DOCTYPE html>
|
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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="" xml:lang="">
|
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|
||
<head>
|
||
<meta charset="utf-8" />
|
||
<meta name="generator" content="pandoc" />
|
||
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes" />
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<meta name="author" content="Ruben van de Ven, Ildikó Zonga Plájás, Cyan Bae, Francesco Ragazzi" />
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<title>Algorithmic Security Vision: Diagrams of Computer Vision Politics</title>
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<style>
|
||
/* div[data-custom-style='Body Text']{
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background: rgba(255,255,255,.5)
|
||
} */
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code {
|
||
white-space: pre-wrap;
|
||
}
|
||
|
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span.smallcaps {
|
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font-variant: small-caps;
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||
}
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||
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span.underline {
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||
text-decoration: underline;
|
||
}
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||
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div.column {
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display: inline-block;
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vertical-align: top;
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width: 50%;
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}
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div.hanging-indent {
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margin-left: 1.5em;
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text-indent: -1.5em;
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}
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ul.task-list {
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list-style: none;
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||
}
|
||
|
||
.display.math {
|
||
display: block;
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text-align: center;
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margin: 0.5rem auto;
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}
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.anchor {
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cursor: pointer;
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/* TODO investigate scroll-snap-align: center; having scroll-snap-type: y proximity; on html*/
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}
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||
|
||
/*Filenames with code blocks: https://stackoverflow.com/a/58199362*/
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div.sourceCode::before {
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||
content: attr(data-filename);
|
||
display: block;
|
||
background-color: #cfeadd;
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||
font-family: monospace;
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||
font-weight: bold;
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||
}
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||
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#collage {
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||
position: fixed;
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z-index: -1;
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||
background-color: white;
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||
left: 0;
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||
top: 0;
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||
right: 0;
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bottom: 0;
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overflow: hidden;
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||
}
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#collage_window {
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position: absolute;
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top: -1000px;
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left: -1000px;
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||
}
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||
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#collage_window svg {
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position: absolute;
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||
left: 0;
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||
top: 0;
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||
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||
}
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||
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div[data-custom-style='Body Text'] p {
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padding: 1em 0;
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||
margin: 0;
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||
background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.8);
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||
}
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||
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||
.anchor {
|
||
position: relative;
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||
}
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||
|
||
.anchor.active:not(.playing)::before {
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||
content: '⏵';
|
||
position: absolute;
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||
width: 40px;
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||
height: 40px;
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||
background: gray;
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||
left: calc(50% - 20px);
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top: calc(50% - 20px);
|
||
vertical-align: middle;
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||
line-height: 35px;
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||
border-radius: 5px;
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||
color: white;
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||
}
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||
|
||
.anchor.active:not(.playing):hover::before {
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||
background: black
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||
}
|
||
|
||
.anchor.playing:hover::before {
|
||
content: '⏸︎';
|
||
position: absolute;
|
||
width: 40px;
|
||
height: 40px;
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||
background: black;
|
||
left: calc(50% - 20px);
|
||
top: calc(50% - 20px);
|
||
vertical-align: middle;
|
||
line-height: 35px;
|
||
border-radius: 5px;
|
||
color: white;
|
||
}
|
||
</style>
|
||
<link rel="stylesheet" href="paper.css" />
|
||
<script src="assets/wNumb-1.2.0.min.js"></script>
|
||
<script src="assets/annotate.js"></script>
|
||
<script>
|
||
const centerPoints = [
|
||
[2759, 6452],
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||
[14335, 5364],
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||
[5757, 10084],
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||
[7137, 3869], // left in practice is -5746px;, top: -2988px;:
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]
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||
|
||
// test with FPR
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const canvasCenter = [20077 / 2, 10331 / 2]
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|
||
let scale = .5;
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||
const sheet = new CSSStyleSheet
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||
sheet.replaceSync(
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||
`
|
||
:host{
|
||
--override-color: gray;
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||
}
|
||
:host(.active){
|
||
--override-color: blue;
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||
}
|
||
|
||
:host(.ending){
|
||
--override-color: blue;
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||
}
|
||
div.controls{display:none !important;}`
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||
);
|
||
|
||
function easeInOutSine(x) {
|
||
return -(Math.cos(Math.PI * x) - 1) / 2;
|
||
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
function easeInOutQuart(x) {
|
||
return x < 0.5 ? 8 * x * x * x * x : 1 - Math.pow(-2 * x + 2, 4) / 2;
|
||
|
||
}
|
||
function easeInOutBack(x) {
|
||
const c1 = 1.70158;
|
||
const c2 = c1 * 1.525;
|
||
|
||
return x < 0.5
|
||
? (Math.pow(2 * x, 2) * ((c2 + 1) * 2 * x - c2)) / 2
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||
: (Math.pow(2 * x - 2, 2) * ((c2 + 1) * (x * 2 - 2) + c2) + 2) / 2;
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||
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
|
||
let scroll_offsets = []
|
||
|
||
function calculateScrollOffsets() {
|
||
const anchorEls = document.getElementsByClassName('anchor');
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||
|
||
offsets = []
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||
|
||
for (let anchorEl of anchorEls) {
|
||
const align_pos = centerPoints[anchorEl.dataset.i];
|
||
const bbox = anchorEl.getBoundingClientRect()
|
||
const scroll_y = bbox.top + (bbox.height / 2) + window.scrollY;
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||
offsets.push([scroll_y, anchorEl.dataset.i])
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||
}
|
||
return offsets.sort((a, b) => a[0] - b[0]);
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
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||
window.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => {
|
||
|
||
scroll_offsets = calculateScrollOffsets()
|
||
|
||
const windowEl = document.getElementById('collage_window')
|
||
const anchorEls = document.getElementsByClassName('anchor')
|
||
const playerEls = document.getElementsByTagName('annotation-player')
|
||
|
||
const paths = [document.getElementById('path1'), document.getElementById('path2'), document.getElementById('path3')]
|
||
paths.forEach((el) => el.style.strokeDasharray = Math.ceil(el.getTotalLength()) + 'px');
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||
|
||
const lastAnchorEl = anchorEls[anchorEls.length - 1];
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||
|
||
for (const anchorEl of anchorEls) {
|
||
anchorEl.addEventListener('click', ev => playerEls[anchorEl.dataset.i].annotator.playPause());
|
||
playerEls[anchorEl.dataset.i].annotator.addEventListener('play', ev => anchorEl.classList.add('playing'));
|
||
playerEls[anchorEl.dataset.i].annotator.addEventListener('pause', ev => anchorEl.classList.remove('playing'));
|
||
}
|
||
for (const player of playerEls) {
|
||
player.shadowRoot.adoptedStyleSheets = [sheet];
|
||
}
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||
|
||
|
||
function updateScroll() {
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||
// calculate the zooming & positioning of the plot
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||
center_y = window.scrollY + window.innerHeight / 2
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||
prev = null;
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||
next = null;
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||
step_idx = null;
|
||
for (let idx in scroll_offsets) {
|
||
const offset = scroll_offsets[idx]
|
||
if (offset[0] > center_y) {
|
||
next = offset
|
||
step_idx = idx;
|
||
break;
|
||
}
|
||
prev = offset
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
|
||
const sticky_dy = 200;
|
||
const intro_outro_dy = window.innerHeight + sticky_dy;
|
||
|
||
let source_pos, target_pos, source_scale, target_scale, source_color, target_color, source_x_offset, target_x_offset;
|
||
|
||
const x_column_width = window.innerWidth - document.body.getBoundingClientRect().width + 200; // for some reason the 200 is neccesary
|
||
const x_center_map = x_column_width / 2;
|
||
const x_center_column = document.body.getBoundingClientRect().left + document.body.getBoundingClientRect().width / 2;
|
||
|
||
const fit_scale = x_column_width / (canvasCenter[0] * 1.7)
|
||
|
||
let sticky_start = true;
|
||
let sticky_end = true;
|
||
|
||
if (prev === null) {
|
||
prev = [next[0] - intro_outro_dy, null]
|
||
|
||
source_scale = fit_scale
|
||
target_scale = .45
|
||
source_pos = canvasCenter
|
||
target_pos = centerPoints[next[1]]
|
||
|
||
source_color = 100;
|
||
target_color = 220;
|
||
|
||
source_x_offset = x_center_map;
|
||
target_x_offset = x_center_column;
|
||
|
||
sticky_start = false; // no sticky before first item
|
||
|
||
} else if (next === null) {
|
||
next = [prev[0] + intro_outro_dy, null]
|
||
|
||
source_scale = .45
|
||
target_scale = fit_scale
|
||
source_pos = centerPoints[prev[1]]
|
||
target_pos = canvasCenter
|
||
|
||
source_color = 220;
|
||
target_color = 50;
|
||
|
||
source_x_offset = x_center_column;
|
||
target_x_offset = x_center_map;
|
||
|
||
sticky_end = false; // no sticky after last item
|
||
|
||
} else {
|
||
source_pos = centerPoints[prev[1]]
|
||
target_pos = centerPoints[next[1]]
|
||
target_scale = .45
|
||
source_scale = .45
|
||
|
||
source_color = target_color = 220;
|
||
|
||
source_x_offset = target_x_offset = x_center_column;
|
||
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
|
||
const t_old = Math.min(1, Math.max(0, (center_y - prev[0]) / (next[0] - prev[0])))
|
||
const s = (center_y - prev[0] - (sticky_dy * sticky_start)) / (next[0] - prev[0] - (sticky_start + sticky_end) * sticky_dy);
|
||
const t = Math.min(1, Math.max(0, s))
|
||
// console.log(t_old, t)
|
||
t_ease = easeInOutSine(t)
|
||
// t_ease = easeInOutQuart(t) // use this if not snapping
|
||
|
||
let sticky_offset = 0;
|
||
if (s > 0 && s < 1) {
|
||
// scrolling from one item to the next
|
||
sticky_offset = t_ease * (sticky_start + sticky_end) * sticky_dy - (sticky_dy * sticky_start);
|
||
} else {
|
||
// sticky item
|
||
if (sticky_end && center_y > next[0] - sticky_dy) {
|
||
sticky_offset = sticky_dy - (center_y - next[0] + sticky_dy)
|
||
} else if (sticky_start && s <= 0) {
|
||
sticky_offset = ((center_y - prev[0]) / sticky_dy) * (- sticky_dy);
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
const dx = target_pos[0] - source_pos[0];
|
||
const dy = target_pos[1] - source_pos[1];
|
||
const ds = target_scale - source_scale
|
||
|
||
// console.log('twean from', source_pos, 'to', target_pos, 't', t_ease)
|
||
// console.log('twean scale', source_scale, 'to', target_scale, 't', t_ease)
|
||
|
||
|
||
scale = source_scale + t_ease * ds;
|
||
x_offset = (target_x_offset - source_x_offset) * t_ease + source_x_offset
|
||
x = -1 * (source_pos[0] + dx * t_ease) * scale + x_offset;
|
||
y = -1 * (source_pos[1] + dy * t_ease) * scale + window.innerHeight / 2 + sticky_offset;
|
||
|
||
const color = (target_color - source_color) * t_ease + source_color
|
||
// sheet.rules[0].style.setProperty('--override-color', `rgba(${color},${color},${color},0.7)`);
|
||
sheet.rules[0].style.setProperty('--disactive-path', `rgba(${color},${color},${color},0.7)`);
|
||
|
||
// draw the line
|
||
|
||
if (step_idx === null) {
|
||
// full paths
|
||
paths.forEach(el => el.style.strokeDashoffset = 0)
|
||
}
|
||
else {
|
||
// no paths
|
||
paths.forEach((el, idx) => {
|
||
if (idx >= step_idx) {
|
||
el.style.strokeDashoffset = Math.ceil(el.getTotalLength()) + 'px';
|
||
} else if (idx == step_idx - 1) {
|
||
// console.log('anim', el)
|
||
el.style.strokeDashoffset = Math.ceil(el.getTotalLength() - el.getTotalLength() * t_ease) + 'px';
|
||
} else {
|
||
el.style.strokeDashoffset = 0;
|
||
}
|
||
});
|
||
// paths.forEach((el) => stroke)
|
||
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
// console.log('x', x, 'y', y, 'scale', scale, 'color', color)
|
||
|
||
// console.log(x, y);
|
||
|
||
windowEl.style.transform = `scale(${scale})`
|
||
windowEl.style.left = `${x}px`
|
||
windowEl.style.top = `${y}px`
|
||
|
||
// calculate whether we're nearing the conlusion, and color accordingly
|
||
const last = Math.max(...Array.from(anchorEls).map((e) => e.getBoundingClientRect().bottom))
|
||
if (last < 0) {
|
||
for (const playerEl of playerEls) {
|
||
playerEl.classList.add('ending')
|
||
}
|
||
} else {
|
||
for (const playerEl of playerEls) {
|
||
playerEl.classList.remove('ending')
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
windowEl.style.transform = `scale(${scale})`
|
||
|
||
window.addEventListener('resize', (ev) => {
|
||
scroll_offsets = calculateScrollOffsets()
|
||
updateScroll()
|
||
})
|
||
|
||
window.addEventListener('scroll', updateScroll)
|
||
|
||
updateScroll()
|
||
|
||
let options = {
|
||
// root: document.querySelector("#scrollArea"), // viewport by default
|
||
rootMargin: `${-Math.floor((window.innerHeight - 10) / 2)}px 0px`, //"0px",
|
||
threshold: 0,
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
let observer = new IntersectionObserver((entries, observer) => {
|
||
entries.forEach((entry) => {
|
||
index = entry.target.dataset.i;
|
||
console.log(entry)
|
||
if (index >= playerEls.length) {
|
||
return;
|
||
}
|
||
playerEl = windowEl.children[index];
|
||
if (entry.isIntersecting) {
|
||
entry.target.classList.add('active');
|
||
playerEl.classList.add('active')
|
||
} else {
|
||
entry.target.classList.remove('active');
|
||
playerEl.classList.remove('active')
|
||
if (typeof playerEl.annotator.paused !== 'undefined' && !playerEl.annotator.paused) {
|
||
console.log('pause', playerEl.annotator, playerEl.annotator.paused)
|
||
playerEl.annotator.pause()
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
})
|
||
}, options);
|
||
|
||
// const anchorEls = document.getElementsByClassName('anchor');
|
||
for (const anchorEl of anchorEls) {
|
||
observer.observe(anchorEl)
|
||
}
|
||
// console.log(anchorEls)
|
||
// .forEach(el => observer.observe());
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
// console.log(anchorEl.dataset.title);
|
||
// const toSelect = typeof anchorEl.dataset.title == 'undefined' || anchorEl.dataset.title == 'none' ? null : frameEl.contentWindow.getIdForTitle(anchorEl.dataset.title);
|
||
// // navItemEl.hash url-encodes
|
||
// // let targetEl = document.getElementById(navItemEl.attributes.href.value.substr(1));
|
||
// // let wrapperEl = targetEl.parentNode;
|
||
// let intersectionObserver = new IntersectionObserver(function (entries) {
|
||
// console.log(entries);
|
||
// // If intersectionRatio is 0, the target is out of view
|
||
// // and we do not need to do anything.
|
||
// // if (entries[0].intersectionRatio <= 0) {
|
||
// // // navItemEl.classList.remove('active');
|
||
// // } else {
|
||
// // if (toSelect === null) {
|
||
// // frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.triggerReset();
|
||
// // // frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.deselectNode();
|
||
// // // frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.resetZoom();
|
||
// // } else {
|
||
// // frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.triggerSelect(toSelect);
|
||
// // // frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.selectNode(node);
|
||
// // }
|
||
// // // navItemEl.classList.add('active');
|
||
// // }
|
||
|
||
// });
|
||
// // start observing
|
||
// intersectionObserver.observe(anchorEl);
|
||
// }
|
||
|
||
|
||
// const linkEls = document.getElementsByClassName('maplink');
|
||
// for (let linkEl of linkEls) {
|
||
// linkEl.addEventListener('click', (ev) => {
|
||
// const toSelect = typeof linkEl.dataset.title == 'undefined' || linkEl.dataset.title == 'none' ? null : frameEl.contentWindow.getIdForTitle(linkEl.dataset.title);
|
||
|
||
// if (toSelect === null) {
|
||
// frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.deselectNode();
|
||
// frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.resetZoom();
|
||
// } else {
|
||
// const node = frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.graph.nodes.filter(n => n.id == toSelect)[0]
|
||
// frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.selectNode(node);
|
||
// }
|
||
|
||
// })
|
||
// linkEl.addEventListener('mouseover', (ev) => {
|
||
// const toSelect = typeof linkEl.dataset.title == 'undefined' || linkEl.dataset.title == 'none' ? null : frameEl.contentWindow.getIdForTitle(linkEl.dataset.title);
|
||
// if (toSelect) {
|
||
|
||
// const node = frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.graph.nodes.filter(n => n.id == toSelect)[0]
|
||
// frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.hoverNode(false, node);
|
||
// }
|
||
|
||
// })
|
||
// linkEl.addEventListener('mouseout', (ev) => {
|
||
// const toSelect = typeof linkEl.dataset.title == 'undefined' || linkEl.dataset.title == 'none' ? null : frameEl.contentWindow.getIdForTitle(linkEl.dataset.title);
|
||
// if (toSelect) {
|
||
// const node = frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.graph.nodes.filter(n => n.id == toSelect)[0]
|
||
// frameEl.contentWindow.mapGraph.endHoverNode(node);
|
||
// }
|
||
|
||
// })
|
||
|
||
// }
|
||
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
</script>
|
||
</head>
|
||
|
||
<body>
|
||
<header id="title-block-header">
|
||
<h1 class="title">Algorithmic Security Vision: Diagrams of Computer
|
||
Vision Politics</h1>
|
||
<p class="author"><em>Ruben van de Ven, Ildikó Zonga Plájás, Cyan Bae,
|
||
Francesco Ragazzi</em></p>
|
||
<p class="date">December 2023</p>
|
||
</header>
|
||
<div id='collage'>
|
||
<div id="collage_window">
|
||
<!--data-poster-url="annotation-BIXG4VTL.svg"-->
|
||
<annotation-player style="position:absolute;width:3243px; height:2635px;left:514px;top:6329px;"
|
||
data-url-prefix="assets" stroke="blue" data-crop='whole'
|
||
data-annotation-url="annotation-F19O9PGE.json"></annotation-player>
|
||
<annotation-player style="position:absolute;width:11867px;height:2753px;left:3905px;top:4333px;"
|
||
data-url-prefix="assets" stroke="blue" data-crop='whole'
|
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<section id="part1">
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<p> .... this is a demo to showcase how the chronodiagramming looks like in its interactive form. Please note
|
||
that this demo of the interface is not compatible with mobile devices ...</p>
|
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<section id="managing-error-from-the-sublime-to-the-risky-algorithm" class="level2">
|
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<h2>3. Managing error: from the sublime to the risky algorithm</h2>
|
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<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
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<p>Our third emerging figuration concerns the place of the error. A
|
||
large body of literature examines actual and speculative cases of
|
||
algorithmic prediction based on self-learning systems (Azar et al.,
|
||
2021). Central to these analyses is the boundary-drawing performed by
|
||
such algorithmic devices, enacting (in)security by rendering their
|
||
subjects as more- or less-risky others (Amicelle et al., 2015: 300;
|
||
Amoore and De Goede, 2005; Aradau et al., 2008; Aradau and Blanke, 2018)
|
||
based on a spectrum of individual and environmental features (Calhoun,
|
||
2023). In other words, these predictive devices conceptualize risk as
|
||
something produced by, and thus external to, security technologies.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>In this critical literature on algorithmic practices, practitioners
|
||
working with algorithmic technologies are often critiqued for
|
||
understanding software as “sublime” (e.g. Wilcox, 2017: 3). However, in
|
||
our diagrams, algorithmic vision appears as a practice of managing
|
||
error. The practitioners we interviewed are aware of the error-prone
|
||
nature of their systems but know it will never be perfect, and see it as
|
||
a key metric that needs to be acted upon.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The most prominent way in which error figures in the diagrams is in
|
||
its quantified form of the true positive and false positive rates, TPR
|
||
and FPR. The significance and definition of these metrics is stressed by
|
||
CTO Gerwin van der Lugt (Diagram 6). In camera surveillance, the false
|
||
positive rate could be described as the number of fales positive
|
||
classifications relative to the number of video frames being analyzed.
|
||
Upon writing down these definitions, van der Lugt corrected his initial
|
||
definitions, as these definitions determine the work of his development
|
||
team, the ways in which his clients — security operators — engage with
|
||
the technology, and whether they perceive the output of the system as
|
||
trustworthy.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Figure">
|
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<div class="anchor" data-i="0" style="height:2.3in"></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Caption">
|
||
<p>Diagram 6. Gerwin van der Lugt corrects his initial definitions of
|
||
the true positive and false positive rates, and stresses the importance
|
||
of their precise definition.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The figuration of algorithmic security vision as inherently imprecise
|
||
affects the operationalization of security practices. Van der Lugt’s
|
||
example concerns whether the violence detection algorithm developed by
|
||
Oddity.ai should be trained to categorize friendly fighting
|
||
(<em>stoeien</em>) between friends as “violence” or not. In this
|
||
context, van der Lugt finds it important to differentiate what counts as
|
||
false positive in the algorithm’s evaluation metric from an error in the
|
||
algorithm’s operationalization of a security question.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
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<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>He gives two reasons to do so. First, he anticipates that the
|
||
exclusion of <em>stoeien</em> from the category of violence would
|
||
negatively impact TPR. In the iterative development of self-learning
|
||
systems, the TPR and FPR, together with the true and false
|
||
<em>negative</em> rates must perform a balancing act. Van der Lugt
|
||
outlines that with their technology they aim for fewer than 100 false
|
||
positives per 100 million frames per week. The FPR becomes indicative of
|
||
the algorithm’s quality, as too many faulty predictions will desensitize
|
||
the human operator to system alerts.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>This leads to van der Lugt’s second point: He fears that the
|
||
exclusion of <em>stoeien</em> from the violence category might cause
|
||
unexpected biases in the system. For example, instead of distinguishing
|
||
violence from <em>stoeien</em> based on people’s body movements, the
|
||
algorithm might make the distinction based on their age. For van der
|
||
Lugt, this would be an undesirable and hard to notice form of
|
||
discrimination. In developing algorithmic (in)security, error is figured
|
||
not merely as a mathematical concept but (as shown in Diagram 6) as a
|
||
notion that invites pre-emption — a mitigation of probable failure — for
|
||
which the developer is responsible. The algorithmic condition of
|
||
security vision is figured as the pre-emption of error.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Figure">
|
||
<div class="anchor" data-i="1" style="height:6in"></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Caption">
|
||
<p>Diagram 7. By drawing errors on a timeline, van Rest calls attention
|
||
to the pre-emptive nature of error in the development process of
|
||
computer vision technologies.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>According to critical AI scholar Matteo Pasquinelli, “machine
|
||
learning is technically based on formulas for error correction” (2019:
|
||
2). Therefore, any critical engagement with such algorithmic processes
|
||
needs to go beyond citing errors, “for it is precisely through these
|
||
variations that the algorithm learns what to do” (Amoore, 2019: 164),
|
||
pushing us to reconsider any argument based on the inaccuracy of the
|
||
systems.</p>
|
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</div>
|
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<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The example of <em>stoeien</em> suggests that it is not so much a
|
||
question if, or how much, these algorithms err, but how these errors are
|
||
anticipated and negotiated. Thus, taking error as a hallmark of machine
|
||
learning we can see how practices of (in)security become shaped by the
|
||
notion of mathematical error well beyond their development stages. Error
|
||
figures centrally in the development, acquisition and deployment of such
|
||
devices. As one respondent indicated, predictive devices are inherently
|
||
erroneous, but the quantification of their error makes them amenable to
|
||
"risk management.”</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>While much has been written about security technologies as a device
|
||
<em>for</em> risk management, little is known about how security
|
||
technologies are conceptualized as objects <em>of</em> risk management.
|
||
What happens then in this double relation of risk? The figure of the
|
||
error enters the diagrams as a mathematical concept, throughout the
|
||
conversations we see its figure permeate the discourse around
|
||
algorithmic security vision. By figuring algorithmic security vision
|
||
through the notion of error, risk is placed at the heart of the security
|
||
apparatus.
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
</section>
|
||
<section id="con-figurations-of-algorithmic-security-vision-fragmenting-accountability-and-expertise"
|
||
class="level1">
|
||
<h1>Con-figurations of algorithmic security vision: fragmenting
|
||
accountability and expertise</h1>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>In the previous section we explored the changing <em>figurations</em>
|
||
of key dimensions of algorithmic security vision, in this section we
|
||
examine how these figurations <em>configure</em>. For Suchman, working
|
||
with configurations highlights “the histories and encounters through
|
||
which things are figured <em>into meaningful existence</em>, fixing them
|
||
through reiteration but also always engaged in ‘the perpetuity of coming
|
||
to be’ that characterizes the biographies of objects as well as
|
||
subjects” (Suchman, 2012: 50, emphasis ours) In other words, we are
|
||
interested in the practices and tensions that emerge as figurations
|
||
become embedded in material practices. We focus on two con-figurations
|
||
that emerged in the interviews: the delegation of accountability to
|
||
externally managed benchmarks, and the displacement of responsibility
|
||
through the reconfiguration of the human-in-the-loop.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<section id="delegating-accountability-to-benchmarks" class="level2">
|
||
<h2>Delegating accountability to benchmarks</h2>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The first configuration is related to the evaluation of the error
|
||
rate in the training of algorithmic vision systems: it involves
|
||
datasets, benchmark institutions, and the idea of fairness as equal
|
||
representation among different social groups. Literature on the ethical
|
||
and political effects of algorithmic vision has notoriously focused on
|
||
the distribution of errors, raising questions of ethnic and racial bias
|
||
(e.g. Buolamwini and Gebru, 2018). Our interviews reflect the concerns
|
||
of much of this literature as the pre-emption of error figured
|
||
repeatedly in relation to the uneven distribution of error across
|
||
minorities or groups. In Diagram 8, Ádám Remport draws how different
|
||
visual traits have often led to different error rates. While the general
|
||
error metric of an algorithmic system might seem "acceptable," it
|
||
actually privileges particular groups, which is invisible when only the
|
||
whole is considered. Jeroen van Rest distinguishes such errors from the
|
||
inherent algorithmic imprecision in deep machine learning models, as
|
||
systemic biases (Diagram 7), as they perpetuate inequalities in the
|
||
society in which the product is being developed.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Figure">
|
||
<div class="anchor" data-i="2" style="height:4in"></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Caption">
|
||
<p>Diagram 8. Ádám Remport describes that facial recognition
|
||
technologies are often most accurate with white male adult faces,
|
||
reflecting the datasets they are trained with. The FPR is higher with
|
||
people with darker skin, children, or women, which may result in false
|
||
flagging and false arrests.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>To mitigate these concerns and manage their risk, many of our
|
||
interviewees who develop and implement these technologies, externalize
|
||
the reference against which the error is measured. They turn to a
|
||
benchmark run by the American National Institute of Standards and
|
||
Technology (NIST), which ranks facial recognition technologies by
|
||
different companies by their error metric across groups. John Riemen,
|
||
who is responsible for the use of forensic facial recognition technology
|
||
at the Center for Biometrics of the Dutch police, describes how their
|
||
choice for software is driven by a public tender that demands a "top-10"
|
||
score on the NIST benchmark. The mitigation of bias is thus outsourced
|
||
to an external, and in this case foreign, institution.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>We see in this outsourcing of error metrics a form of delegation that
|
||
brings about a specific regime of (in)visibility. While a particular
|
||
kind of algorithmic bias is rendered central to the NIST benchmark, the
|
||
mobilization of this reference obfuscates questions on how that metric
|
||
was achieved. That is to say, questions about training data are
|
||
invisibilized, even though that data is a known site of contestation.
|
||
For example, the NIST benchmark datasets are known to include faces of
|
||
wounded people (Keyes, 2019). The Clearview company is known to use
|
||
images scraped illegally from social media, and IBM uses a dataset that
|
||
is likely in violation of European GDPR legislation (Bommasani et al.,
|
||
2022: 154). Pasquinelli (2019) argued that machine learning models
|
||
ultimately act as data compressors: enfolding and operationalizing
|
||
imagery of which the terms of acquisition are invisibilized.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Attention to this invisibilization reveals a discrepancy between the
|
||
developers and the implementers of these technologies. On the one hand,
|
||
the developers we interviewed expressed concerns about how their
|
||
training data is constituted to gain a maximum false positive rate/true
|
||
positive rate (FPR/TPR) ratio, while showing concern for the legality of
|
||
the data they use to train their algorithms. On the other hand,
|
||
questions about the constitution of the dataset have been virtually
|
||
non-existent in our conversations with those who implement software that
|
||
relies on models trained with such data. Occasionally this knowledge was
|
||
considered part of the developers' intellectual property that had to be
|
||
kept a trade secret. A high score on the benchmark is enough to pass
|
||
questions of fairness, legitimizing the use of the algorithmic model.
|
||
Thus, while indirectly relying on the source data, it is no longer
|
||
deemed relevant in the consideration of an algorithm. This illustrates
|
||
well how the invisibilization of the “compressed” dataset, in
|
||
Pasquinelli’s terms, into a model, with the formalization of guiding
|
||
metrics into a benchmark, permits a bracketing of accountability. One
|
||
does not need to know how outcomes are produced, as long as the
|
||
benchmarks are in order.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The configuration of algorithmic vision’s bias across a complex
|
||
network of fragmented locations and actors, from the dataset, to the
|
||
algorithm, to the benchmark institution reveals the selective processes
|
||
of (in)visibilization. This opens up fruitful alleys for new empirical
|
||
research: What are the politics of the benchmark as a mechanism of
|
||
legitimization? How does the outsourcing of assessing the error
|
||
distribution impact attention to bias? How has the critique of bias been
|
||
institutionalized by the security industry, resulting in the
|
||
externalization of accountability, through dis-location and
|
||
fragmentation?</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
<section id="reconfiguring-the-human-in-the-loop" class="level2">
|
||
<h2>Reconfiguring the human-in-the-loop</h2>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>A second central question linked to the delegation of accountability
|
||
is the configuration in which the security operator is located. The
|
||
effects of delegation and fragmentation in which the mitigation of
|
||
algorithmic errors is outsourced to an external party, becomes visible
|
||
in the ways in which the role of the security operator is configured in
|
||
relation to the institution they work for, the software’s assessment,
|
||
and the affected publics.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The public critique of algorithms has often construed the
|
||
<em>human-in-the loop</em> as one of the last lines of defense in the
|
||
resistance to automated systems, able to filter and correct erroneous
|
||
outcomes (Markoff, 2020). The literature in critical security studies
|
||
has however problematized the representation of the security operator in
|
||
algorithmic assemblages by discussing how the algorithmic predictions
|
||
appear on their screen (Aradau and Blanke, 2018), and how the embodied
|
||
decision making of the operator is entangled with the algorithmic
|
||
assemblage (Wilcox, 2017). Moreover, the operator is often left guessing
|
||
at the working of the device that provides them with information to make
|
||
their decision (Møhl, 2021).
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>What our participants’ diagrams emphasized is how a whole spectrum of
|
||
system designs emerges in response to similar questions, for example the
|
||
issue of algorithmic bias. A primary difference can be found in the
|
||
degree of understanding of the systems that is expected of security
|
||
operators, as well as their perceived autonomy. Sometimes, the human
|
||
operator is central to the system’s operation, forming the interface
|
||
between the algorithmic systems and surveillance practices. Gerwin van
|
||
der Lugt, developer of software at Oddity.ai that detects criminal
|
||
behavior argues that “the responsibility for how to deal with the
|
||
violent incidents is always [on a] human, not the algorithm. The
|
||
algorithm just detects violence—that’s it—but the human needs to deal
|
||
with it.”</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Dirk Herzbach, chief of police at the Police Headquarters Mannheim,
|
||
adds that when alerted to an incident by the system, the operator
|
||
decides whether to deploy a police car. Both Herzbach and Van der Lugt
|
||
figure the human-in-the-loop as having full agency and responsibility in
|
||
operating the (in)security assemblage (cf. Hoijtink and Leese,
|
||
2019).</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Some interviewees drew a diagram in which the operator is supposed to
|
||
be aware of the ways in which the technology errs, so they can address
|
||
them. Several other interviewees considered the technical expertise of
|
||
the human-in-the-loop to be unimportant, even a hindrance.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Chief of police Herzbach prefers an operator to have patrol
|
||
experience to assess which situations require intervention. He is
|
||
concerned that knowledge about algorithmic biases might interfere with
|
||
such decisions. In the case of the Moscow metro, in which a facial
|
||
recognition system has been deployed to purchase tickets and open access
|
||
gates, the human-in-the-loop is reconfigured as an end user who needs to
|
||
be shielded from the algorithm’s operation (c.f. Lorusso, 2021). On
|
||
these occasions, expertise on the technological creation of the suspect
|
||
becomes fragmented.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>These different figurations of the security operator are held
|
||
together by the idea that the human operator is the expert of the
|
||
subject of security, and is expected to make decisions independent from
|
||
the information that the algorithmic system provides.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Figure">
|
||
<div class="anchor" data-i="3" style="height:6in"></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Caption">
|
||
<p>Diagram 9. Riemen explains the process of information filtering that
|
||
is involved in querying the facial recognition database of the Dutch
|
||
police.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Other drivers exist, however, to shield the operator from the
|
||
algorithm’s functioning, challenging individual expertise and
|
||
acknowledging the fallibility of human decision making. In Diagram 9,
|
||
John Riemen outlines the use of facial recognition by the Dutch police.
|
||
He describes how data from the police case and on the algorithmic
|
||
assessment is filtered out as much as possible from the information
|
||
provided to the operator. This, Riemen suggests, might reduce bias in
|
||
the final decision. He adds that there should be no fewer than three
|
||
humans-in-the-loop who operate independently to increase the accuracy of
|
||
the algorithmic security vision.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>Instead of increasing their number, there is another configuration of
|
||
the human-in-the-loop that responds to the fallibility of the operator.
|
||
For the Burglary-Free Neighborhood project in Rotterdam, project manager
|
||
Guido Delver draws surveillance as operated by neighborhood residents,
|
||
through a system that they own themselves. By involving different
|
||
stakeholders, Delver hopes to counter government hegemony over the
|
||
surveillance apparatus. However, residents are untrained in assessing
|
||
algorithmic predictions raising new challenges. Delver illustrates a
|
||
scenario in which the algorithmic signaling of a potential burglary may
|
||
have dangerous consequences: “Does it invoke the wrong behavior from the
|
||
citizen? [They could] go out with a bat and look for the guy who has
|
||
done nothing [because] it was a false positive.” In this case, the worry
|
||
is that the erroneous predictions will not be questioned. Therefore, in
|
||
Delver’s project the goal was to actualize an autonomous system, “with
|
||
as little interference as possible.” Human participation or
|
||
“interference” in the operation are potentially harmful. Thus, figuring
|
||
the operator — whether police officer or neighborhood resident — as
|
||
risky, can lead to the relegation of direct human intervention.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>By looking at the figurations of the operator that appear in the
|
||
diagrams we see multiple and heterogeneous configurations of
|
||
regulations, security companies, and professionals. In each
|
||
configuration, the human-in-the-loop appears in different forms. The
|
||
operator often holds the final responsibility in the ethical functioning
|
||
of the system. At times they are configured as an expert in
|
||
sophisticated but error-prone systems; at others they are figured as end
|
||
users who are activated by the alerts generated by the system, and who
|
||
need not understand how the software works and errs, or who can be left
|
||
out.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>These configurations remind us that there cannot be any theorization
|
||
of “algorithmic security vision,” both of its empirical workings and its
|
||
ethical and political consequences without close attention to the
|
||
empirical contexts in which the configurations are arranged. Each
|
||
organization of datasets, algorithms, benchmarks, hardware and operators
|
||
has specific problems. And each contains specific politics of
|
||
visibilization, invisibilization, responsibility and accountability.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
</section>
|
||
<section id="a-diagram-of-research" class="level1">
|
||
<h1>A diagram of research</h1>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>In this conclusion, we reflect upon a final dimension of the method
|
||
of diagraming in the context of figurations and configurations: its
|
||
potential as an alternative to the conventional research program.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>While writing this text, indeed, the search for a coherent structure
|
||
through which we could map the problems that emerged from analyzing the
|
||
diagrams in a straightforward narrative proved elusive. We considered
|
||
various organizational frameworks, but consistently encountered
|
||
resistance from one or two sections. It became evident that our
|
||
interviews yielded a rhizome of interrelated problems, creating a
|
||
multitude of possible inquiries and overlapping trajectories. Some
|
||
dimensions of these problems are related, but not to every problem.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>If we take for example the understanding of algorithmic security
|
||
vision as practices of error management as a starting point, we see how
|
||
the actors we interviewed have incorporated the societal critique of
|
||
algorithmic bias. This serves as a catalyst for novel strategies aimed
|
||
at mitigating the repercussions of imperfect systems. The societal
|
||
critique has driven the development of synthetic datasets, which promise
|
||
equitable representation across diverse demographic groups. It has also
|
||
been the reason for the reliance on institutionalized benchmarks to
|
||
assess the impartiality of algorithms. Moreover, different
|
||
configurations of the human-in-the-loop emerge, all promised to rectify
|
||
algorithmic fallibility. We see a causal chain there.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>But how does the question of algorithmic error relate to the shift
|
||
from photographic to cinematic vision that algorithmic security vision
|
||
brings about? Certainly, there are reverberations. The relegation of
|
||
stable identity that we outlined, could be seen as a way to mitigate the
|
||
impact of those errors. But it would be a leap to identify these
|
||
questions of error as the central driver for the increased incorporation
|
||
of moving images in algorithmic security vision.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>However, if we take as our starting point the formidable strides in
|
||
computing power and the advancements in camera technologies, we face
|
||
similar problems. These developments make the analysis of movement
|
||
possible while helping to elucidate the advances in the real-time
|
||
analysis that are required to remove the human-in-the-loop, as trialed
|
||
in the Burglary-Free Neighborhood. These developments account for the
|
||
feasibility of the synthetic data generation, a computing-intense
|
||
process which opens a vast horizon of possibilities for developers to
|
||
detect objects or actions. Such an account, however, does not address
|
||
the need for such a synthetic dataset. A focus on the computation of
|
||
movement, however, would highlight how a lack of training data
|
||
necessitates many of the practices described. Synthetic data is
|
||
necessitated by the glaring absence of pre-existing security datasets
|
||
that contain moving bodies. While facial recognition algorithms could be
|
||
trained and operated on quickly repurposed photographic datasets of
|
||
national identity cards or drivers’ license registries, no dataset for
|
||
moving bodies has been available to be repurposed by states or
|
||
corporations. This absence of training data requires programmers to
|
||
stage scenes for the camera. Thus, while one issue contains echoes of
|
||
the other, the network of interrelated problematizations cannot be
|
||
flattened into a single narrative.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Body Text">
|
||
<p>The constraints imposed by the linear structure of an academic
|
||
article certainly necessitate a specific ordering of sections. Yet the
|
||
different research directions we highlight form something else. The
|
||
multiple figurations analyzed here generate fresh tensions when put in
|
||
relation with security and political practices. What appears from the
|
||
diagrams is a network of figurations in various configurations. Instead
|
||
of a research <em>program</em>, our interviews point toward a larger
|
||
research <em>diagram</em> of interrelated questions, which invites us to
|
||
think in terms of pathways through this dynamic and evolving network of
|
||
relations.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
<section id="references" class="level1">
|
||
<h1>References</h1>
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</section>
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||
<section class="footnotes footnotes-end-of-document" role="doc-endnotes">
|
||
<hr />
|
||
<ol>
|
||
<li id="fn1" role="doc-endnote">
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Footnote Text">
|
||
<p><span data-custom-style="Footnote Characters"></span> The interface
|
||
software and code is available at <a
|
||
href="https://git.rubenvandeven.com/security_vision/svganim"><span
|
||
data-custom-style="Hyperlink">https://git.rubenvandeven.com/security_vision/svganim</span></a>
|
||
and <a href="https://gitlab.com/security-vision/chronodiagram"><span
|
||
data-custom-style="Hyperlink">https://gitlab.com/security-vision/chronodiagram</span></a>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<a href="#fnref1" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="fn2" role="doc-endnote">
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Footnote Text">
|
||
<p><span data-custom-style="Footnote Characters"></span> The interviews
|
||
were conducted in several European countries: the majority in the
|
||
Netherlands, but also in Belgium, Hungary and Poland. Based on an
|
||
initial survey of algorithmic security vision practices in Europe we
|
||
identified various roles that are involved in such practices. Being a
|
||
rather small group of people, these interviewees do not serve as
|
||
“illustrative representatives” (Mol & Law 2002, 16-17) of the field
|
||
they work in. However, as the interviewees have different cultural and
|
||
institutional affiliations, and hold different positions in working with
|
||
algorithms, vision and security, they cover a wide spectrum of
|
||
engagements with our research object.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<a href="#fnref2" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="fn3" role="doc-endnote">
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Footnote Text">
|
||
<p><span data-custom-style="Footnote Characters"></span> The interviews
|
||
were conducted by the first two authors, and at a later stage by Clemens
|
||
Baier. The conversations were largely unstructured, but began with two
|
||
basic questions. First, we asked the interviewees if they use diagrams
|
||
in their daily practice. We then asked: “when we speak of ‘security
|
||
vision’ we speak of the use of computer vision in a security context.
|
||
Can you explain from your perspective what these concepts mean and how
|
||
they come together?” After the first few interviews, we identified some
|
||
recurrent themes, which we then specifically asked later interviewees to
|
||
discuss.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<a href="#fnref3" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="fn4" role="doc-endnote">
|
||
<div data-custom-style="Footnote Text">
|
||
<p><span data-custom-style="Footnote Characters"></span> Using
|
||
anthropomorphizing terms such as “neural networks,” “learning” and
|
||
“training” to denote algorithmic configurations and processes is
|
||
suggested to hype “artificial intelligence.” While we support the need
|
||
for an alternative terminology as proposed by Hunger (2023), here we
|
||
preserve the language of our interviewees.</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<a href="#fnref4" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ol>
|
||
</section>
|
||
</body>
|
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